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Biology 210 Exam 4 Study Guide (Chapters 15-17)
Chapter 15
INTRODUCTION
1.
Provide an
overview of the three basic functions of the sensory, motor, and integrative
systems of the nervous system.
SENSATION
2.
Define and
compare sensation and perception.
Sensory Modalies
3.
Define sensory
modality, give examples, and indicate the unique relationship to impulses
transmitted along specific pathways.
The Process of a Sensation
4.
Generally
examine the four requisite events for a stimulus to become a sensation.
Sensory Receptors
Types of Sensory Receptors
5.
Describe the
types of receptors in terms of association with general or special systems,
location, and stimulus type.
Adaptation in Sensory Receptors
6.
State what is
meant by adaptation of receptors and provide examples of slow and rapidly
adapting receptors.
7.
Note the
general location and nature of somatic receptors.
8.
Identify the
cutaneous sensation modalities.
Tactile Sensations
9.
Identify the
tactile sensations, how they are detected, and the receptors involved.
10. Describe
the touch receptors and how they respond to a stimulus.
11. Define
and compare the sensations of pressure and vibration.
12. Define
and compare the sensations of itch and tickle.
Thermal Sensations
13. Identify
the thermal sensations, their receptors, and the receptor locations.
Pain Sensations
14. Describe
the function of pain.
15. Identify the pain receptors, their location,
and what stimulates them.
Types of Pain
16. Distinguish
between fast and slow pain and among superficial somatic, deep somatic, and
visceral pain.
Localization of Pain
17. Discuss
the localization of pain, including referred pain and phantom limb pain.
18. Describe how analgesic drugs provide relief
from pain.
Proprioceptive Sensations
19. Identify
the types of proprioception and indicate their neural pathways, areas of CNS
processing, and function.
Muscle Spindles
20. Describe
the architecture and reflexive operation of the muscle spindle apparatus with
their neural links to the CNS and skeletal muscle.
Tendon Organs
21. Describe
the architecture and reflexive operation of the tendon organs with their neural
links to the CNS and skeletal muscle.
Joint Kinesthetic Receptors
22. Discuss
the location, nature, and purpose of joint kinesthetic receptors.
23. Examine
the samatic sensory and somatic motor maps in the cerebral cortex.
24. Demonstrate
the relationship of the proportion of sensory representation on the cortical
surface with receptor density on the body surface.
25. Describe
the relationship between the number of motor units going to an area of the body
and the amount of surface area of the primary motor cortex that controls that
body part
SOMATIC SENSORY PATHWAYS
26. Discuss
the general neuronal components of the somatic sensory pathways from receptors
to cerebral cortex.
Posterior Column-Medial Lemniscus Pathway to
the Cortex
27. Discuss
the neuronal components and functions of the posterior column-medial lemniscus
pathway.
Anterolateral Pathways to the Cortex
28. Discuss
the neuronal components and functions of the anterolateral pathway.
Somatic Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum
29. Describe
the neural paths that lead from receptors to the cerebellum and how they are
structurally different from the spinothalamic tracts.
30. Discuss
how Treponema pallidum impacts the operation of the spinocerebellar
tract.
SOMATIC MOTOR PATHWAYS
31. List the neural circuits termed the somatic
motor pathways.
32. Differentiate between direct motor pathways
and indirect motor pathways.
33. Describe
the difference in paralysis symptoms with damage to upper versus lower motor
neurons.
34. Illustrate
the neural pathway segments of three major representations of the descending
pyramidal-corticospinal tract and indicate their distinctive functions.
35. Describe
the effects of ALS on the motor pathway neruons.
36. List
the central nervous system components that are involved with processing of
motor information of the extrapyramidal pathways and the tracts of the spinal
cord where they connect.
37. Explain
how the basal ganglia are involved in motor responses.
38. Examine
the effects of Parkinson disease and Huntington disease on the basal ganglia.
39. Discuss
the four principle operations of the cerebellum in the coordination of
conscious and subconscious skilled muscle movements.
40. Describe
ataxia and intention tremors as symptoms of damage to the cerebellum.
INTEGRATIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRUM
41. List
the major integrative functions of the cerebrum.
Wakefulness and Sleep
42. Describe
the role of the hypothalamus in the wakefulness and sleep cycle.
The Role of the Reticular Activating System
in Awakening
43. Describe
the role of the reticular activating system in arousal and consciousness.
Sleep
44. Discuss
the characteristics of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and the difference
compared to the stages of non-REM sleep.
Learning and Memory
45. Show
how learning and memory are related and the areas of the brain that are though
to be involved.
46. Examine
the theoretical mechanisms of short-term and long-term memory.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
47. Discuss
spinal cord injury and Parkinson disease in terms of cause, symptoms, and
prognosis.
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
48. Define
the medical terminology associated with the sensory, motor, and integrative
systems.
INTRODUCTION
1.
Briefly
describe the receptors for the special senses.
OLFACTION: SENSE OF SMELL
2.
Discuss the
interconnection of the senses of smell and taste.
Anatomy of Olfactory Receptors
3.
Discuss the
anatomic relation of cells in the olfactory mucosa and describe the cellular
parts with respect to function.
Physiology of Olfaction
4.
Describe the
sequence of events in which a molecule that comes in contact with mucus of the
epithelium initiates an action potential.
Odor Thresholds and Adaptation
5.
Explain the
result of olfactory nerve adaptation on sensory nerve output and how it is
useful in discriminative sensory sensitivity.
Olfactory Pathway
6.
Describe the
neural links from the bipolar olfactory receptor to their destinations in
specific functional areas of the brain.
7.
Define
hyposmia and state its causes.
GUSTATION: SENSE OF TASTE
8.
Discuss the
general similarities and differences in operation of the gustatory and
olfactory systems, then relate how they work together.
Anatomy of Taste buds and Papillae
9.
Describe the
organization and functional parts of the cells within the various taste buds,
indicating the differing cellular duties and etiological transformations.
Physiology of Gustation
10. Describe the means by which the binding of a
dissolved molecule in saliva generates a postsynaptic potential in the primary
sensory neuron.
11. Describe how the gustatory system
discriminates among hundreds of different tastes with only four types of taste
receptors.
Taste Thresholds and Adaptation
12. Discuss how the taste threshold changes with
adaptation.
Gustatory Pathway
13. Indicate which cranial nerves conduct taste
impulses from separate regions of the tongue to specific areas of the brain.
14. Describe tase aversion and correlate this
phenomenon to survival.
VISION
Accessory Structures
of the Eye
Eyelids
15. Describe the structures of the eyelids and
their functions.
Eyelashes and Eyebrows
16. Describe the eyelashes and eyebrows and
their functions.
Lacrimal Apparatus
17. Describe the structures of the lacrimal
apparatus and their functions.
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
18. Identify the extrinsic eye muscles and their
functions.
Anatomy of the Eyeball
Fibrous Tunic
19. Describe the tissue configurations and
related jobs of the components of the fibrous tunic.
20. Discuss why there are relatively few medical
problems with transplantation of a cornea compared with other body tissues.
Vascular Tunic
21. Describe the structural constituents of the
three regions of the vascular tunic, while emphasizing how these allow
performance of their distinct duties.
Retina
22. Describe the major features and layers of
the nervous tunic.
23. Discuss the positions of extensions and soma
of two types of photo-receptor cells and three varieties of retinal neurons
that compose the numerous layers within the retina.
24. Discuss the general purpose of the different
retinal cells.
Lens
25. Describe the structure and function of the
lens.
Interior of the Eyeball
26. Describe the materials that occupy the
cavities and chambers of the inner eye, and state how the materials support the
operation of the eye.
27. Discuss age related macular disease and
examine its effects on vision.
Image Formation
28. Discuss how components of the eyeball mimic
the parts of a camera to perform the three basic processes in properly focusing
light on the retina.
Refraction of Light Rays
29. Discuss how the bending of light as it
passes through the differing densities of transparent materials of the eye is
used to direct the rays from objects of varying distance to focus on the
retina.
Accommodation and the Near Point of Vision
30. Demonstrate how the iris, lens, and
extrinsic eye muscles operate in order to converge the light from a near object
onto the retina.
31. Examine the effect on image formation when
there are abnormal changes in the structure of the cornea and lens.
32. Discuss age related changes in elasticity
and their effects on accomodation as seen in presbyopia.
Refraction Abnormalities
33. List and discuss the refraction
abnormalities.
Constriction of the Pupil
34. Outline the components of the iris control
mechanism, and their operation and purpose in altering the diameter of the
pupil.
Convergence
35. Illustrate how and why the relative forward
angle of the eyes varies as an object of
interest changes distance.
Physiology of Vision
Photoreceptors and Photopigments
36. Describe the definitive structures and
operations of rod and cone photoreceptors as well as the location and
differences between photopigments.
37. List the steps of the configuration changes
that occur to the photopigments upon absorption of a photon.
Light and Dark Adaptation
38. Indicate how the timing of photopigment
regeneration leads to different capacities in rods and cones to adapt to
changes in light intensity.
Release of Neurotransmitters by
Photoreceptors
39. Discuss the sequence of interactions between
photopigments, enzymes, sodium channels, photoreceptor membrane potential,
glutamate release, and changes in the membrane potential of connected bipolar
cells.
Visual Pathway
40. Mention that the signal produced by the
photoreceptors is progressively integrated as it moves through the circuits
leading to the brain.
Processing of Visual Input in the Retina
41. Discuss how the type of circuit connections
of rods and cones to other retinal neurons dictates differences in light
sensitivity and clarity of the image invoked by the two types of photoreceptors.
42. Diagram the relationship that results in
stereoscopic vision from light originating from specific visual fields with the
area of the retina that receives it and the alternate pathways of the
associated neurons.
HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM
Anatomy of the Ear
External (Outer)
Ear
43. Describe the tissue structures and functions
of the auricle and auditory canal.
Middle Ear
44. Discuss the anatomy, operations, and
functions of middle ear structures from the tempanic membrane to the oval
window.
45. Explain why the ossicles amplify the force
of vibrations by a factor of thirty from the eardrum to the stapes.
46. State some functional responsibilities of
internal auditory tube.
Internal (Inner) Ear
47. Illustrate how the bony and membranous
labyrinths fit together to form the modules of the semicircular canals,
vestibule, and cochlear apparatus.
48. Examine the specialized structures of the
sensory mechanisms of the semicircular canals, vestibule, and cochlear
apparatus.
49. Establish the physical relations of sound
wave length to frequency and pitch, and amplitude to loudness measured in
decibels.
50. Describe how loud sounds damage hair cells.
Physiology of Hearing
51. Discuss the principal structures and events
that transform differing sound vibration frequencies into impulses traveling
along separate cochlear neurons, which are involved with the physiology of
hearing.
52. Describe the components of the auditory
pathway.
53. Discuss how cochlear implants can be used
for people with deafness due to injury to hair cells.
Physiology of Equilibrium
54. Distinguish between the two kinds of
equilibrium.
Otolithic Organs: Saccule and Utricle
55. Describe the cellular and extracellular
constituents of the maculae, and the relative spacial position of these
otoliths organs with the saccule and utricle.
56. Discuss how the otoliths work with the cilia
of the macular hair cells to indicate relative orientation to gravity and
direction of acceleration.
Semicircular Ducts
57. Describe how the fluid of the semicircular
canals temporarily moves against the cupula of the ampula to incite impulses
that indicate three dimensions of rotational movement.
Equilibrium Pathways
58. Define the distribution of the cochlear and
vestibular components of cranial nerve VI to the nuclei for vision and head
orientation, and to the cerebellum for integration with information on movement
control.
59. Describe the embryological development of
the eyes.
60. Describe the embryological development of
the ears.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
61. Describe the causes and symptoms of
cataracts, glaucoma, deafness, Menier’s
disease, and otitis media.
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
62. Define medical terminology associated with
sense organs.
INTRODUCTION
1.
Survey the
general way in which the autonomic nervous system operates to regulate the
activities of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands to maintain
homeostasis.
COMPARISON OF SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEMS
2.
Compare the
structural and functional differences between the somatic and autonomic nervous
systems.
ANATOMY OF AUTONOMIC PATHWAYS
3.
Distinguish
between the pre- and postganglionic neurons.
4.
Specify the
different origins and destination ganglia for the sympathetic (thoracolumbar)
and parasympathetic (craniosacral) preganglionic neurons.
5.
Describe the
differing locations of the ganglia of the sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems.
6.
Discuss the
location and composition of the autonomic plexuses.
7.
Compare the
differing ratio of pre- to postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems, as well as their distinctive distribution to organs.
Structure of the Sympathetic Division
8.
Illustrate and
define the structures of rami, ganglia, and plexuses along the path of
sympathetic nerves from the CNS to their respective effectors.
9.
Describe the
cause and symptoms of Horner’s syndrome.
Structure of the Parasympathetic Division
10. Illustrate
and define the structures of cranial nerves and ganglia along the path of
parasympathetic nerves from the CNS to their respective effectors.
ANS NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND RECEPTORS
11. Identify
the chemical nature of the autonomic neurotransmitter receptors and their
location.
Cholinergic Neurons and Receptors
12. Identify
the cholinergic neurons, receptors, and neurotransmitters.
13. Describe
the effects of acetylcholine as a cholinergic neuron neurotransmitter.
Adrenergic Neurons and Receptors
14. Identify
the adrenergic neurons, receptors, and neurotransmitters.
15. Describe
the effects of norepinephrine as an adrenergic neuron neurotransmitter.
Receptor Agonists and Antagonists
16. Identify
certain cholinergic and adrenergic agonists and antagonists and their actions.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE ANS
17. Emphasize
that most organs receive innervation from both ANS divisions that have opposing
and balancing effects, which depend on the neurotransmitter released and the
particular receptor on the organ.
18. Indicate
which organs are innervated solely by the sympathetic or parasympathetic ANS
divisions.
Sympathetic Responses
19. Discuss
the primary purpose of the sympathetic division and the general body functions
it directs.
20. Describe
Raynaud’s disease and describe its symptoms.
Parasympathetic Response
21. Discuss
the primary purpose of the parasympathetic division and the general body
functions it directs.
INTEGRATION AND CONTROL OF AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS
Autonomic Reflexes
22. Describe
the ANS and CNS components involved in a visceral autonomic reflex.
Autonomic Control by Higher Centers
23. Explain
the relationship of the hypothalamus, brain stem nuclei, limbic system, and
cerebrum to the autonomic nervous system.
24. Define
autonomic dysreflexia and describe its effects.
25. Examine
the role of the nervous system in maintaining homeostasis